Mercury: Quick Silver Death

Complete Mercury MSDS Below
Common sources of Mercury such as batteries, fluorescent light bulbs, and mercury thermometers - see Mercury MSDS below for more sources

Common sources of Mercury such as batteries, fluorescent light bulbs, and mercury thermometers - see Mercury MSDS below for more sources

Public Health Statement for Mercury

CONTENTS:

Highlights

What is mercury?

What happens to mercury when it enters the environment?

How might I be exposed to mercury?

How can mercury affect my health?

How likely is mercury to cause cancer?

How does mercury affect children?

How can families reduce the risk of exposure to mercury?

Is there a medical test to show whether I've been exposed to mercury?

Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?

References

Contact Information

Mercury MSDS Information

Complete Mercury Toxicology and Chemical Information

HIGHLIGHTS:

Exposure to mercury occurs from breathing contaminated air, ingesting contaminated water and food, and having dental and medical treatments. Mercury, at high levels, may damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus. This chemical has been found in at least 714 of 1,467 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency

What is mercury?

Mercury, also known by the name Quicksilver, is a naturally occurring metal which has several forms. The metallic mercury is a shiny, silver-white, odorless liquid. If heated, it is a colorless, odorless gas.

Mercury combines with other elements, such as chlorine, sulfur, or oxygen, to form inorganic mercury compounds or "salts," which are usually white powders or crystals. Mercury also combines with carbon to make organic mercury compounds. The most common one, methylmercury, is produced mainly by microscopic organisms in the water and soil. More mercury in the environment can increase the amounts of methylmercury that these small organisms make.

Metallic mercury is used to produce chlorine gas and caustic soda, and is also used in thermometers, dental fillings, and batteries. Mercury salts are sometimes used in skin lightening creams and as antiseptic creams and ointments.

Synonyms for Mercury:

CCRIS 1578
Caswell No. 546
Colloidal mercury
EINECS 231-106-7
EPA Pesticide Chemical Code 052301
HSDB 1208
Hydrargyrum
KWIK [Dutch]
Liquid silver
Mercure [French]
Mercurio [Italian]
Mercury
Mercury vapor
Mercury, metallic
Metallic mercury
NCI-C60399
Quecksilber [German]
Quick silver
Quicksilver
RCRA waste number U151
RTEC [Polish]
UN 2024 (liquid compounds)

Sources of Mercury:

MINING, SMELTING, OR METALLURGY: Cinnabar ore mining and crushing operations in Spain, China, Kyrgyzstan and Algeria.; gold extraction (cyanide leaching or amalgamation processes)
MANUFACTURING: Thermometers, manometers & barometers; dental amalgam; polyurethane catalyst; switches & rectifiers; dry cell batteries; paints
USING OR DISPOSING: Open mercury cells in chloralkali plant for maintenance; use mercury amalgams in dental office
RESTRICTED: Paint manufacturers agreed to discontinued the use of mercury in exterior paints after September 1991 and in interior paints after Aug 20, 1990.

What happens to mercury when it enters the environment?

Inorganic mercury (metallic mercury and inorganic mercury compounds) enters the air from mining ore deposits, burning coal and waste, and from manufacturing plants.
It enters the water or soil from natural deposits, disposal of wastes, and volcanic activity.
Methylmercury may be formed in water and soil by small organisms called bacteria.�
Methylmercury builds up in the tissues of fish.� Larger and older fish tend to have the highest levels of mercury.

How might I be exposed to mercury?

Eating fish or shellfish contaminated with methylmercury.
Breathing vapors in air from spills, incinerators, and industries that burn mercury-containing fuels.
Release of mercury from dental work and medical treatments.
Breathing contaminated workplace air or skin contact during use in the workplace (dental, health services, chemical, and other industries that use mercury).
Practicing rituals that include mercury.

Household Product listing Mercury as an ingredient:

Quikrete Color-PAK, All Colors except Charcoal No. 1318 Home maintenance powder

Industrial Processes with risk of exposure to Mercury:

Abrasive Blasting
Battery Manufacturing
Mining
Photographic Processing
Using Disinfectants
Welding Over Coatings

Activities with risk of exposure to Mercury:

Ingesting an herbal remedy
Painting

How can mercury affect my health?

The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury. Methylmercury and metallic mercury vapors are more harmful than other forms, because more mercury in these forms reaches the brain. Exposure to high levels of metallic, inorganic, or organic mercury can permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus. Effects on brain functioning may result in irritability, shyness, tremors, changes in vision or hearing, and memory problems.

Short-term exposure to high levels of metallic mercury vapors may cause effects including lung damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, increases in blood pressure or heart rate, skin rashes, and eye irritation.

Elemental mercury vapor is toxic predominantly to the lung and central nervous system.
Pneumonitis can result from exposure to high concentrations of mercury vapor not likely to occur in current industrial processes.
Chronic exposure to inorganic mercury may produce proteinuria as evidence of kidney injury.
Elemental mercury is combined with other metals without heating to form amalgams for dental fillings.
Ammoniated mercury is a moderate skin sensitizer, and mercuric chloride is a strong sensitizer.
The phenyl mercuric salts (used in herbicides, fungicides, antiseptics, and preservatives) are strong skin irritants.
Organic mercury compounds are reproductive toxins that can cause CNS malformations and cerebral palsy in humans.
There is limited positive data that inorganic mercury can cause spontaneous abortions in humans and birth defects in animals.
Test the blood to detect methylmercury.
Test the urine to detect elemental or inorganic mercury.
Fish consumption is a fairly common cause of elevated blood mercury.
Since organic mercury is usually excreted through the biliary system, urine levels are not useful.

Half-life of Mercury:��

The Half-life of Mercury is the time required to reduce by one half the amount of Mercury absorbed by the body. Half-life can be calculated accurately only for those substances eliminated linearly, independent of concentration. For linearly eliminated substances, it takes approximately 3.5 half-lives to eliminate 90% of the substance.

Half-life of Metallic and inorganic in whole body: 1-2 months
Half-life of Blood: 2 days to 1 month
Half-life of Methylmercury in blood: 1 month
Half-life of Methylmercury in whole body: 44-79 days

How likely is mercury to cause cancer?

There are inadequate human cancer data available for all forms of mercury. Mercuric chloride has caused increases in several types of tumors in rats and mice, and methylmercury has caused kidney tumors in male mice. The EPA has determined that mercuric chloride and methylmercury are possible human carcinogens.

How does mercury affect children?

Very young children are more sensitive to mercury than adults. Mercury in the mother's body passes to the fetus and may accumulate there. It can also can pass to a nursing infant through breast milk. However, the benefits of breast feeding may be greater than the possible adverse effects of mercury in breast milk.

Mercury's harmful effects that may be passed from the mother to the fetus include brain damage, mental retardation, incoordination, blindness, seizures, and inability to speak. Children poisoned by mercury may develop problems of their nervous and digestive systems, and kidney damage.

How can families reduce the risk of exposure to mercury?

Carefully handle and dispose of products that contain mercury, such as thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs. Do not vacuum up spilled mercury, because it will vaporize and increase exposure. If a large amount of mercury has been spilled, contact your health department. Teach children not to play with shiny, silver liquids.

Properly dispose of older medicines that contain mercury. Keep all mercury-containing medicines away from children.

Pregnant women and children should keep away from rooms where liquid mercury has been used.

Learn about wildlife and fish advisories in your area from your public health or natural resources department.

Is there a medical test to show whether I've been exposed to mercury?

Tests are available to measure mercury levels in the body. Blood or urine samples are used to test for exposure to metallic mercury and to inorganic forms of mercury. Mercury in whole blood or in scalp hair is measured to determine exposure to methylmercury. Your doctor can take samples and send them to a testing laboratory.

Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?

The EPA has set a limit of 2 parts of mercury per billion parts of drinking water (2 ppb).

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set a maximum permissible level of 1 part of methylmercury in a million parts of seafood (1 ppm).

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set limits of 0.1 milligram of organic mercury per cubic meter of workplace air (0.1 mg/m�) and 0.05 mg/m� of metallic mercury vapor for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks.

References

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1999. Managing Hazardous Materials Incidents. Volume III � Medical Management Guidelines for Acute Chemical Exposures: Mercury. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1999. Toxicological Profile for mercury. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.

Where can I get more information?

ATSDR can tell you where to find occupational and environmental health clinics. Their specialists can recognize, evaluate, and treat illnesses resulting from exposure to hazardous substances. You can also contact your community or state health or environmental quality department if you have any more questions or concerns. For more information, contact:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop F-32
Atlanta, GA 30333
Phone: 1-888-42-ATSDR (1-888-422-8737)
FAX: ��(770)-488-4178
Email: ATSDRIC@cdc.gov

Mercury MSDS Information

Material Safety Data Sheet

acc. to OSHA and ANSI

��Printing date 05/17/2006 Reviewed on 05/04/2006��

� 1 Identification of substance:

Product details:

Product name: Mercury

Stock number: 00522

Manufacturer/Supplier:
Alfa Aesar, A Johnson Matthey Company
Johnson Matthey Catalog Company, Inc.
30 Bond Street
Ward Hill, MA 01835-8099
Emergency Phone: (978) 521-6300
CHEMTREC: (800) 424-9300
Web Site: www.alfa.com

Information Department: Health, Safety and Environmental Department

Emergency information:
During normal hours the Health, Safety and Environmental Department. After normal hours call Chemtrec at (800) 424-9300.

� 2 Composition/Data on components:

Chemical characterization:
��Description: (CAS#) ��
Mercury (CAS# 7439-97-6): 100%

Identification number(s):

EINECS Number: 231-106-7

EU Number: 080-001-00-0

� 3 Hazards identification

Hazard description:
T Toxic
N Dangerous for the environment

Information pertaining to particular dangers for man and environment
R 23 ��Toxic by inhalation.
R 33 ��Danger of cumulative effects.
R 50/53 Very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment

Classification system

HMIS ratings (scale 0-4)

��(Hazardous Materials Identification System)
Health (acute effects) = 3
Flammability = 0
Reactivity = 0

� 4 First aid measures

General information
Immediately remove any clothing soiled by the product.
Remove breathing apparatus only after contaminated clothing has been completely removed.
In case of irregular breathing or respiratory arrest provide artificial respiration.

After inhalation
Supply fresh air. If required, provide artificial respiration. Keep patient warm.
Seek immediate medical advice.

After skin contact
Immediately wash with water and soap and rinse thoroughly.
Seek immediate medical advice.

After eye contact
Rinse opened eye for several minutes under running water. Then consult a doctor.

After swallowing Seek immediate medical advice.

� 5 Fire fighting measures

Suitable extinguishing agents
Product is not flammable. Use fire fighting measures that suit the surrounding fire.

Special hazards caused by the material, its products of combustion or
��resulting gases:
In case of fire, the following can be released:
Toxic metal oxide fume

Protective equipment:
Wear self-contained respirator.
Wear fully protective impervious suit.

� 6 Accidental release measures

Person-related safety precautions:
Wear protective equipment. Keep unprotected persons away.
Ensure adequate ventilation

Measures for environmental protection:
Do not allow material to be released to the environment without proper governmental permits.

Measures for cleaning/collecting:
Absorb with liquid-binding material (sand, diatomite, acid binders, universal binders, sawdust).
Dispose contaminated material as waste according to item 13.
Ensure adequate ventilation.

Additional information:
See Section 7 for information on safe handling
See Section 8 for information on personal protection equipment.
See Section 13 for disposal information.

� 7 Handling and storage

Handling

Information for safe handling:
Keep container tightly sealed.
Store in cool, dry place in tightly closed containers.
Ensure good ventilation at the workplace.
Open and handle container with care.

Information about protection against explosions and fires:
The product is not flammable

Storage

Requirements to be met by storerooms and receptacles:
No special requirements.

Information about storage in one common storage facility:
Store away from oxidizing agents.

Further information about storage conditions:
Keep container tightly sealed.
Store in cool, dry conditions in well sealed containers.

� 8 Exposure controls and personal protection

Additional information about design of technical systems:
Properly operating chemical fume hood designed for hazardous chemicals and having an average face velocity of at least 100 feet per minute.

Components with limit values that require monitoring at the workplace:

Mercury, inorganic compounds (as Hg)
��mg/m3
ACGIH TLV ��0.025 (skin)
��Not classified as a human carcinogen
Austria MAK ��0.05
Belgium TWA ��0.1 (skin)
Denmark TWA ��0.05 (skin)
Finland TWA ��0.05
France VME ��0.05 (skin)(vapor)
Germany MAK ��0.1
Hungary TWA ��0.02; 0.04-STEL
Japan OEL ��0.05
Korea TLV ��0.025 (vapor) (skin)
Netherlands MAC-TGG �0.05; 0.5-MAC-K
Norway TWA ��0.05
Poland TWA ��0.025 (vapors); 0.2-STEL (vapors)
Sweden NGV ��0.05
Switzerland MAK-W ��0.01 (skin)
United Kingdom TWA ��0.025
USA PEL ��0.1-Ceiling

Additional information: No data

Personal protective equipment

General protective and hygienic measures
The usual precautionary measures for handling chemicals should be followed.
Keep away from foodstuffs, beverages and feed.
Remove all soiled and contaminated clothing immediately.
Wash hands before breaks and at the end of work.
Store protective clothing separately.

Breathing equipment:
Use suitable respirator when high concentrations are present.

Protection of hands:
Check protective gloves prior to each use for their proper condition.
Impervious gloves

Material of gloves
The selection of suitable gloves not only depends on the material, but also on quality. �Quality will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.

Eye protection: Safety glasses

Body protection: Protective work clothing.

� 9 Physical and chemical properties:

General Information

Form: Liquid

Color: Silver-colored

Odor: Odorless

�� Value/Range �Unit ��Method ��

Change in condition

Melting point/Melting range: �� ��-38.87 � C

Boiling point/Boiling range: �� ��356.9 � C

Sublimation temperature / start: � Not determined

Flash point: �� Not determined

Ignition temperature: �� Not determined

Decomposition temperature: �� Not determined

Danger of explosion:
Product does not present an explosion hazard.

Explosion limits:

Lower: �� Not determined

Upper: �� Not determined

Vapor pressure: �� Not determined

Density: �� at ��20 � C ��13.456 g/cm�

Solubility in / Miscibility with

Water: �� Not miscible or difficult to mix

�10 Stability and reactivity

Thermal decomposition / conditions to be avoided:
Decomposition will not occur if used and stored according to specifications.

Materials to be avoided: Oxidizing agents

Dangerous reactions No dangerous reactions known

Dangerous products of decomposition: Toxic metal oxide fume

�11 Toxicological information

Acute toxicity:

Primary irritant effect:

on the skin: Irritant to skin and mucous membranes.

on the eye: Irritating effect.

Sensitization: No sensitizing effects known.

Other information (about experimental toxicology):
Tumorigenic effects have been observed on tests with laboratory animals.
Reproductive effects have been observed on tests with laboratory animals.
Mutagenic effects have been observed with humans.

Subacute to chronic toxicity:
Acute and chronic exposure to inorganic mercury can cause salivation with metallic taste, pain on chewing, gingevitis, colitis, stomatitis, kidney damage, and central nervous system damage. �The latter can cause tremors, convulsive or shaking movements and psychic disturbances such as memory loss, insomnia, loss of confidence, irritability and depression. �Excessive exposure may result in death.

Subacute to chronic toxicity:
The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) reports the following effects in laboratory animals:
Skin and Appendages - dermatitis, other (after systemic exposure).
Skin and Appendages - dermatitis, allergic (after systemic exposure).
Skin and Appendages - sweating.
Cardiac - pulse rate increase, without fall in BP.
Peripheral Nerve and Sensation - paresthesis.
Lungs, Thorax, or Respiration - dyspnea.
Lungs, Thorax, or Respiration - pulmonary emboli.
Brain and Coverings - other degenerative changes.
Kidney, Ureter, Bladder - other changes.
Kidney, Ureter, Bladder - proteinuria.
Biochemical - Enzyme inhibition, induction, or change in blood or tissue levels - other enzymes.
Behavioral - tremor.
Behavioral - muscle weakness.
Behavioral - wakefulness.
Behavioral - anorexia (human).
Behavioral - headache.
Behavioral - alteration of classical conditioning.
Behavioral - alteration of operant conditioning.
Gastrointestinal - hypermotility, diarrhea.
Sense Organs and Special Senses (Ear) - tinnitus.
Nutritional and Gross Metabolic - body temperature increase.
Liver - jaundice, other or unclassified.
Liver - other changes.
Reproductive - Paternal Effects - spermatogenesis.
Reproductive - Fertility - post-implantation mortality (e.g. dead/or resorbed implants per total number of implants).
Reproductive - Effects on Embryo or Fetus - fetotoxicity (except death, e.g., stunted fetus).
Reproductive - Specific Developmental Abnormalities - Central Nervous System.
Reproductive - Paternal Effects - other effects on male.
Tumorigenic - equivocal tumorigenic agent by RTECS criteria.
Tumorigenic - tumors at site of application.

Additional toxicological information:
To the best of our knowledge the acute and chronic toxicity of this substance is not fully known.
EPA-D: Not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity: inadequate human and animal evidence of carcinogenicity or no data are available.
IARC-3: Not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans.
ACGIH A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen: Inadequate data on which to classify the agent in terms of its carcinogenicity in humans and/or animals.

�12 Ecological information:

Ecotoxical effects:

Remark: Very toxic for fish

General notes:
Also poisonous for fish and plankton in water bodies.
Do not allow material to be released to the environment without proper governmental permits.
Very toxic for aquatic organisms

�13 Disposal considerations

Product:

Recommendation
Consult state, local or national regulations to ensure proper disposal.

Uncleaned packagings:

Recommendation:
Disposal must be made according to official regulations.

�14 Transport information

DOT regulations:

Hazard class: �� 8

Identification number: �� UN2809

Packing group: �� III

Proper shipping name (technical name):
��MERCURY

Label �� 8

Land transport ADR/RID �(cross-border)

ADR/RID class: �� 8 (C9) Corrosive substances

Danger code (Kemler): �� 80

UN-Number: �� 2809

Packaging group: �� III

Description of goods: �� 2809 MERCURY

Maritime transport IMDG:

IMDG Class: �� 8

UN Number: �� 2809

Label �� 8

Packaging group: �� III

Proper shipping name: �� MERCURY

Air transport ICAO-TI and IATA-DGR:

ICAO/IATA Class: �� 8

UN/ID Number: �� 2809

Label �� 8

Packaging group: �� III

Proper shipping name: �� MERCURY

�15 Regulations

Product related hazard informations:

Hazard symbols:
T Toxic N Dangerous for the environment

Risk phrases:
23 ��Toxic by inhalation.
33 ��Danger of cumulative effects.
50/53 Very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment

Safety phrases:
7 ��Keep container tightly closed.
45 ��In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately.
60 ��This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous waste.
61 ��Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/Safety data sheets

National regulations
All components of this product are listed in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Toxic Substances Control Act Chemical substance Inventory.
This product contains a chemical known to the state of California to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.

Information about limitation of use:
For use only by technically qualified individuals.
This product contains mercury and is subject to the reporting requirements of section 313 of the Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act of 1986 and 40CFR372.

�16 Other information:

Employers should use this information only as a supplement to other information gathered by them, and should make independent judgement of suitability of this information to ensure proper use and protect the health and safety of employees. �This information is furnished without warranty, and any use of the product not in conformance with this Material Safety Data Sheet, or in combination with any other product or process, is the responsibility of the user.

Department issuing MSDS: Health, Safety and Environmental Department.

Contact: Darrell R. Sanders

Complete Mercury Toxicology and Chemical Information

FULL RECORD
� Human Health Effects
�� Toxicity Summary
�� Evidence for Carcinogenicity
�� Human Toxicity Excerpts
�� Medical Surveillance
�� Probable Routes of Human Exposure
�� Average Daily Intake
� Emergency Medical Treatment
��Antidote and Emergency Treatment
� Animal Toxicity Studies
�� Toxicity Summary
�� Evidence for Carcinogenicity
�� Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts
�� Ecotoxicity Values
� Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics
�� Metabolism/Metabolites
�� Absorption, Distribution & Excretion
�� Biological Half-Life
�� Mechanism of Action
�� Interactions
� Pharmacology
�� Therapeutic Uses
�� Interactions
� Environmental Fate & Exposure
�� Probable Routes of Human Exposure
�� Average Daily Intake
�� Natural Pollution Sources
�� Artificial Pollution Sources
�� Environmental Fate
�� Environmental Biodegradation
�� Environmental Bioconcentration
�� Volatilization from Water/Soil
�� Sediment/Soil Concentrations
�� Atmospheric Concentrations
� Environmental Standards & Regulations
�� CERCLA Reportable Quantities
�� RCRA Requirements
�� Atmospheric Standards
�� Clean Water Act Requirements
�� Federal Drinking Water Standards
�� Federal Drinking Water Guidelines
�� State Drinking Water Guidelines
� Chemical/Physical Properties
�� Molecular Formula
�� Molecular Weight
�� Color/Form
�� Odor
�� Boiling Point
�� Melting Point
�� Corrosivity
�� Critical Temperature & Pressure
�� Density/Specific Gravity
�� Heat of Vaporization
�� Solubilities
�� Spectral Properties
�� Surface Tension
�� Vapor Pressure
�� Viscosity
�� Other Chemical/Physical Properties
� Chemical Safety & Handling
�� DOT Emergency Guidelines
�� Toxic Combustion Products
�� Hazardous Reactivities & Incompatibilities
�� Prior History of Accidents
�� Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
�� Protective Equipment & Clothing
�� Preventive Measures
�� Stability/Shelf Life
�� Shipment Methods and Regulations
�� Storage Conditions
�� Cleanup Methods
�� Disposal Methods
� Occupational Exposure Standards
�� OSHA Standards
�� Threshold Limit Values
�� Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
�� Other Occupational Permissible Levels
� Manufacturing/Use Information
�� Major Uses
�� Manufacturers
�� Methods of Manufacturing
�� General Manufacturing Information
�� Formulations/Preparations
�� Impurities
�� Consumption Patterns
�� U. S. Production
�� U. S. Imports
�� U. S. Exports
� Laboratory Methods
�� Analytic Laboratory Methods
�� Sampling Procedures
� Special References
�� Special Reports
� Synonyms and Identifiers
�� Related�Records
�� Synonyms
�� Formulations/Preparations
�� Shipping Name/ Number DOT/UN/NA/IMO
�� Standard Transportation Number
�� EPA Hazardous Waste Number
�

MERCURY, ELEMENTAL

CASRN: 7439-97-6
This record contains information for mercury in its zero valence state only. For general toxicology and environmental fate of the mercury ions and inorganic mercury compounds, refer to the MERCURY COMPOUNDS record; for compound-specific information, refer to the appropriate individual records, e.g., mercuric oxide, mercurous oxide, etc.
For other data, click on the Table of Contents

Human Health Effects:

Toxicity Summary:

IDENTIFICATION: In its elemental form, mercury is a heavy silvery liquid at room temperature and has a very high vapour pressure. Mercury vapor is more soluble in plasma, whole blood, and hemoglobin than in distilled water, where it dissolves only slightly. The major natural sources of mercury are degassing of the earth's crust, emissions from volcanoes, and evaporation from natural bodies of water. (The world-wide mining of mercury is estimated to yield about 10,000 tons per year. The activities lead to some losses of mercury and direct discharges to the atmosphere). Other important sources are fossil fuel combustion, metal sulfide ore smelting, gold refining, cement production, refuse incineration, and industrial applications of metals. A major use of mercury is as a cathode in the electrolysis of sodium chloride. Mercury is used in the electrical industry, in control instruments in the home and industry, and in laboratory and medical instruments. A very large amount of mercury is used for the extraction of gold. Dental silver amalgam for tooth filling contains large amounts of mercury. Use of skin-lightening soap and creams can give rise to substantial mercury exposure. Occupational exposure to inorganic mercury has been investigated in chloralkali plants, mercury mines, thermometer factories, refineries, and in dental clinics. High mercury levels have been reported for all these occupational exposure situations, although levels vary according to work environment conditions. HUMAN EXPOSURE: The general population is primarily exposed to mercury through the diet and dental amalgam. Acute inhalation exposure to mercury vapor may be followed by chest pains, dyspnea, coughing, hemoptysis, and sometimes interstitial pneumonitis leading to death. (The ingestion of mercuric compounds, in particular mercuric chloride, has caused ulcerative gastroenteritis and acute tubular necrosis causing death from anuria where dialysis was not available). The central nervous system is the critical organ for mercury vapor exposure. Subacute exposure has given rise to psychotic reactions characterized by delerium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in erethism as the principal feature of a broad ranging functional disturbance. The kidney is the critical organ following the ingestion of inorganic divalent mercury salts. Occupational exposure to metallic mercury has long been associated with the development of proteinuria. Both metallic mercury vapor and mercury compounds have given rise to contact dermatitis. Mercurial pharmaceuticals have been responsible for Pink disease (acrodynia) in children, and mercury vapor exposure may be a cause of "Kawasaki" disease. Results of both human and animal studies indicate that about 80% of inhaled metallic mercury vapour is retained by the body, whereas liquid metallic mercury is poorly absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract. ANIMAL STUDIES: Evidence of damage to brain, kidney, heart, and lungs have been reported in rabbits exposed acutely to metallic mercury vapor at certain concentrations. Both reversible and irreversible toxic effects may be caused by mercury and its compounds. In two studies, tremor and behavioural effects were observed in rabbits and rats after several weeks of exposure to metallic mercury vapour. Depending upon the animal strain tested, either auto-immunity or immunosuppression is observed. The most sensitive adverse effect caused by mercuric mercury is the formation of mercuric-mercury-induced auto-immune glomerulonephritis. Mercuric chloride was found to induce gene mutations in mouse lymphoma cells and DNA damage in rat and mouse fibroblasts. The World Health Organization reported no evidence that inorganic mercury is carcinogenic. The neurotoxic effect seen after exposure to metallic mercury vapour is attributable to the divalent mercury ion formed through oxidation in the brain tissue. Significantly more mercury is transported to the brain of mice and monkeys after the inhalation of elemental mercury than after the intravenous injection of equivalent doses of the mercuric form.
[World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety. Environmental Health Criteria 118 Inorganic Mercury. pp. 13-21, 68-83 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Evidence for Carcinogenicity:

CLASSIFICATION: D; not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity. BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION: Based on inadequate human and animal data. Epidemiologic studies failed to show a correlation between exposure to elemental mercury vapor and carcinogenicity; the findings in these studies were confounded by possible or known concurrent exposures to other chemicals, including human carcinogens, as well as lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking). Findings from genotoxicity tests are severely limited and provide equivocal evidence that mercury adversely affects the number or structure of chromosomes in human somatic cells. HUMAN CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Inadequate. ANIMAL CARCINOGENICITY DATA: Inadequate.
[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on Mercury (Inorganic ) (7439-97-6) Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris on the Substance File List as of March 15, 2000]**PEER REVIEWED**

Evaluation: There is inadequate evidence in humans for the carcinogenicity of mercury and mercury compounds. There is inadequate evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of metallic mercury. There is limited evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of mercuric chloride. There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of methylmercury chloride. In making the overall evaluation, the Working Group took into account evidence that methylmercury compounds are similar with regard to absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, genotoxicity and other forms of toxicity. Overall evaluation: Methylmercury compounds are possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). Metallic mercury and inorganic mercury compounds are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans. (Group 3). /Mercury and mercury compounds/
[IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man. Geneva: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1972-PRESENT. (Multivolume work)., p. V58 324 (1993)]**PEER REVIEWED**

A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen. /Mercury, elemental and inorganic forms, as Hg/
[ American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists TLVs and BEIs. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices. Cincinnati, OH, 2005, p. 37]**QC REVIEWED**

Human Toxicity Excerpts:

Aneuploidy and other chromosomal aberrations have been observed in lymphocytes from whole blood cultures of workers occupationally exposed to mercury, including people working with mercury amalgams.
[USEPA; Mercury Health Effects Update p.5-11 (1984) EPA 600/8-84-019F]**PEER REVIEWED**

Humans exposed occupationally to metallic mercury cmpd or Hg amalgams had significantly increased occurrence of lymphocytic aneuploidy but not structural chromosome aberrations relative to controls.
[Nat'l Research Council Canada; Effect of Mercury in the Canadian Environment p.115 (1979) NRCC No. 16739]**PEER REVIEWED**

The case of a 25 yr old woman with previous metallic mercury skin deposits treated by excision of the affected area and oral administration of 125 mg penicillamine 2 times/day, is reported. Symptoms of metallic mercury intoxication were not shown. Biopsy of the lumps produced a salmon pink fluid containing globules of metallic mercury. One yr after the incident no signs of long term intoxication were shown.
[Grounds RM; J R Soc Med 77: 611-13 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**

CHRONIC ABSORPTION FROM HANDLING OF MERCURY OR EXPOSURE TO ITS VAPORS HAS LED TO A CHARACTERISTIC DISCOLORATION OF THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE LENS. ... ROSE-BROWN OR PINKISH HOMOGENEOUS REFLEX IS SEEN ... IN SOME CASES INVOLVING WHOLE ANTERIOR SURFACE ... SOMETIMES ... ANTERIOR SUBCAPSULAR DISC.
[Grant, W.M. Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1986., p. 583]**PEER REVIEWED**

Neonates have absorbed significant amounts of mercury after the breakage of elemental mercury switches in their incubators.
[Ellenhorn, M.J. and D.G. Barceloux. Medical Toxicology - Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Poisoning. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. 1988., p. 1048]**PEER REVIEWED**

67 patients with oral lichen plantus of the atrophic-erosive or reticular plaque type were examined. Dental amalgam in contact with mucosal lesions was present in 64 patients, and gold fillings in 33. Patch testing with a standard procedure was performed with components of dental fillings. 11 patients (16%) reacted to at least one of the mercury compounds as compared to 8% in a reference group. Most positive reactions were caused by elemental mercury and ammoniated mercury.
[Mobacken H et al; Contact Dermatitis 10 (1): 11-5 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Increased metabolic rate increases ... food consumption and exposure to mercury through the food chain.
[USEPA; Ambient Water Quality Criteria Doc: Mercury p.12 (1984) EPA 440/5-84-026]**PEER REVIEWED**

AMONG INORG CMPD, ELEMENTAL MERCURY & DIVALENT MERCURY SALT ARE ... OF TOXICOLOGICAL INTEREST. IT IS DOUBTFUL WHETHER MERCUROUS MERCURY HAS ANY SURVIVAL IN THE ORGANISM, ALTHOUGH AT PRESENT POSSIBILITY ... THAT MERCUROUS MERCURY MAY BE INT IN REDOX TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTAL & MERCURIC MERCURY OR VICE VERSA IN BODY.
[Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B. (eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986., p. 389]**PEER REVIEWED**

DISTURBANCES OF EYES IN MERCURY POISONING CONSISTS OF DISCOLORATION OF CORNEA & LENS, TREMOR OF EYELIDS, & POSSIBLY ... DISTURBANCES OF VISION & EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES. ... IN VERY YOUNG CHILDREN ACRODYNIA. ... CHARACTERTISTIC BY OCULAR SYMPTOMS ... PHOTOPHOBIA ... CONJUNCTIVITIS, ITCHING ... KERATITIS ...
[Grant, W.M. Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1986., p. 583]**PEER REVIEWED**

CHRONIC ABSORPTION ... HANDLING MERCURY OR EXPOSURE TO ITS VAPORS HAS LED TO A CHARACTERISTIC DISCOLORATION OF THE FRONT SURFACE OF THE LENS. ... ROSE-BROWN OR PINKISH HOMOGENEOUS REFLEX IS SEEN ... IN SOME CASES INVOLVING WHOLE ANTERIOR SURFACE ... SOMETIMES ... ANTERIOR SUBCAPSULAR DISC. /MERCURY/
[Grant, W.M. Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1986., p. 583]**PEER REVIEWED**

AMONG INORG CMPD, ELEMENTAL MERCURY & DIVALENT MERCURY SALT ARE THE CMPD OF TOXICOLOGICAL INTEREST. IT IS DOUBTFUL WHETHER MERCUROUS MERCURY HAS ANY SURVIVAL IN THE ORGANISM, ALTHOUGH AT PRESENT POSSIBILITY ... THAT MERCUROUS MERCURY MAY BE INTERMEDIATE IN REDOX TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTAL & MERCURIC MERCURY OR VICE VERSA IN BODY.
[Friberg, L., Nordberg, G.F., Kessler, E. and Vouk, V.B. (eds). Handbook of the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Vols I, II.: Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986., p. 389]**PEER REVIEWED**

Six of 75 workers exposed to 0.05 to 0.1 mg Hg/cu m of mercury vapor in a glass manufacturing plant reported insomnia, and one had tremors. Hyperexcitability was observed in 33 percent of the workers exposed to mercury vapor at concentrations above 0.05 mg Hg/cu m, whereas only 8 percent of the workers exposed below this concentration were hyperexcitable. Tremors were observed in 20 percent of the workers in both groups. Occupational mercury exposures resulting in tremors are associated with urinary mercury concentrations ranging from 50 to 200 ug/g creatinine. /Mercury vapor/
[Clayton, G.D., F.E. Clayton (eds.) Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volumes 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E, 2F: Toxicology. 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1993-1994., p. 2133]**PEER REVIEWED**

When 84 mercury exposed workers in a thermometer factory were compared to 79 workers not exposed to mercury, the exposed workers were found to have a higher prevalence of static tremor, abnormal Romberg test, and dysdiadochokinesia. There was a correlation between urinary mercury Hg and NAG suggestive of recent mercury toxicity, whereas the CNS signs and symptoms were considered a result of chronic toxicity. No differences existed between the groups of workers with regard to beta-microglobulin and retinol-binding protein, which are considered markers of proximal renal tubule function.
[Clayton, G.D., F.E. Clayton (eds.) Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volumes 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E, 2F: Toxicology. 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1993-1994., p. 2133]**PEER REVIEWED**

Forty one male mercury exposed workers were examined for serum concentration levels of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM), alpha-1-antitrypsin (AIAT), alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2M), ceruloplasmin (CPL), and orosomucoid (ORO). In the period preceding this investigation the mercury concentrations in workplace air ranged from 0.106 to 0.783 mg/cu m; the range of urinary mercury concentrations was from 0.029 to 0.545 mg/l. All but two (IgG and AIAT) of the immune parameters tested were at levels much higher than those found in a control group of 55 workers matched by age to the exposed workers and who lived in a relatively clean area. Almost 80% of the workers in the control group demonstrated no value out of the range of normal physiological limits, but only 36.6% of the exposed workers showed normal values.
[Clayton, G.D., F.E. Clayton (eds.) Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volumes 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E, 2F: Toxicology. 4th ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1993-1994., p. 2136]**PEER REVIEWED**

Medical Surveillance:

The assessment of mercury exposure can be accomplished through measurement of mercury, which is useful for assessment of recent exposure to any of the three forms of mercury. ... Whole Blood Reference Ranges: Normal - mean level in the general population <8 ug/l; Exposed - BEI (sampling time at end of shift at end of workweek, measured as total inorganic mercury) 15.0 ug/l. BAT (biological tolerance value for a working material) for metallic and inorganic compounds (sampling time not fixed) 50 ug/l; BAT for organic compounds (sampling time not fixed) 100 ug/l. /Mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1577]**PEER REVIEWED**

The assessment of mercury exposure can be accomplished through measurement of mercury, which is useful for assessment of recent exposure to any of the three forms of mercury. ... Whole Blood Reference Ranges: Toxic - 0.3 ug/100 ml, memory disturbances, impaired eye-hand coordination; 0.5-3 ug/100 ml, altered electroencephalograms (EEGs); <1 - >10 ug/deciliter, increased tremors; 1.4 ug/ ml, decreased immunoglogin G (IgG) and immunoglobin A (IgA) levels; >1.5 ug/100 ml, disturbances in tests on verbal intelligence and memory; 1-2 ug/100 ml, increased prevalence of abnormal psychomotor scores; 1-2 ug/ 100 ml, increased tremors, impaired eye-hand coordination; >3 ug/100 ml, (estimated threshold level): increased urinary excretion of beta-galactosidase and high molecular weight proteins. /Mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1577]**PEER REVIEWED**

The assessment of mercury exposure can be accomplished through measurement of mercury. However, measurement of mercury in ... /serum or plasma/ is insensitive because mercury is found primarily in the red blood cells. Serum or Plasma Reference Ranges: Normal - not established; Exposed - not established; Toxic - not established. /Mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1578]**PEER REVIEWED**

The assessment of mercury exposure can be accomplished through measurement of mercury ... Urine Reference Ranges: Normal - <20.0 ug/l; Exposed - BEI (sampling time is preshift, measured as total inorganic mercury) 35.0 ug/g creatinine; Toxic - 3-53 ug/g creatinine, memory disturbances, impaired eye-hand coordination; 4-53 ug/g creatinine, altered EEGs; 3-272 ug/g creatinine, increased anti-laminin antibodies (implicated in the etiology of autoimmune glomerulo-nephritis); 44 ug/g creatinine, decreased Iga and IgG levels; 73 ug/g creatinine, increased static tremors, difficulty with heel-to-toe gait; 50-100 ug/g creatinine, increased tremors, impaired eye-hand coordination; >50 ug/g creatinine (estimated threshold level), increased urinary excretion of beta-galactosidase and high molecular weight proteins; 7-1,101 ug/24 hr, abnormal memory tests, decreased tibial nerve velocity, increased median nerve latency in both motor and sensory nerves; 0-510 ug/l, short term memory loss; 5-1,000 ug/l, increased tremor frequency and reaction time, impaired eye-hand coordination; <10->1,000 ug/l, increased tremors; 20-450 ug/l, increased motor and sensory nerve latency; >56 ug/l, disturbances in tests on verbal intelligence and memory; 100-250 ug/l, increased acetyl beta-d-glucosaminidase (NAG) enzyme levels in urine; >200 ug/l, increased tremors, impaired eye-hand coordination; 300-1,400 ug/l, nephrotic syndrome, albuminuria, hypercholesterolemia; 56 ug/g creatinine, no effect level for proteinuria. /Mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1578]**PEER REVIEWED**

Urine Albumin: Albuminuria has been shown to be a specific marker of glomerular dysfunction. Tubular damage, however, can also result in increased levels of albumin in the urine. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1580]**PEER REVIEWED**

Urinary Beta-2-Microglobulin and/or Retinal Binding Protein: Measurements for the presence of either of these low molecular weight proteins are useful in detection of early impairment of proximal tubular function. However, beta-2-microglobulin is unstable at urinary pH less than 6, and may degrade in the bladder prior to collection and subsequent neutralization of the urine sample. Measurement of retinal binding protein appears to be a better marker for early tubular dysfunction due to its stability in the urine subsequent to collection and analysis. However, retinal binding protein is produced in the liver and not a constitutive protein of the kidney, so that its presence in the kidney provides only indirect evidence of tubular damage. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1580]**PEER REVIEWED**

Urinary Alpha () and Pi () Isoenzymes of Glutathione S-Transferase: Radio-immunological and Elisa techniques have been developed for quantitation of and isoenzymes of glutathione S-transferase, which are constitutive proteins in the kidney." The isoenzyme is located only in the proximal tubule, while the isoenzyme is located in the distal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the collecting ducts of the kidney. Damage to epithelial cell membranes can result in the increased excretion of these isoenzymes in the urine. This test for assessing renal tubular damage appears to have many advantages over other available tests, such as: (1) the and isoenzymes are constitutive proteins in the kidney; (2) these isoenzymes are stable in the urine; (3) the test is simple and reproducible; and (4) due to selective localization of the isoenzymes, differential diagnosis of specific tubular damage is possible. In addition, increased levels of these isoenzymes were seen in patients previously exposed to nephrotoxicants where'conventional tests for kidney function were normal, indicating a high degree of sensitivity. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1581]**PEER REVIEWED**

Urinary Enzyme N-Acetylglucosaminidase: This lysosomal enzyme has shown promise in assessment of subclinical nephrotoxic injury. This enzyme is not normally filtered at the glomerulus due to its high molecular weight. In the absence of glomerular injury, this enzyme will be detected in the urine as a result of leakage or exocytosis from damaged, stimulated, or exfoliated renal cells. The sensitivity of measurement for this enzyme has not been thoroughly studied, but it's usefulness has shown some promise. However, this enzyme is unstable at urinary pH greater than 8, which could diminish the sensitivity of the measurement due to enzyme degradation. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1581]**PEER REVIEWED**

Routine Urinalysis: Performing a routine urinalysis including parameters such as specific gravity, glucose, and microscopic examination may be useful for assessing renal toxicity. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1581]**PEER REVIEWED**

Evaluation of Peripheral Neuropathy: Nerve conduction study; Electromyography; Quantitative sensory testing; Thermography. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1584]**PEER REVIEWED**

Evaluation of Central Nervous System Effects: Evaluation of CNS effects can be performed through neuropsychological assessment, which consists of a clinical interview and administration of standardized personality and neuropsychological tests. The areas that the neuropsychology test batteries focus on include the domains of memory and attention; visuoperceptual, visual scanning, visuospatial, and visual memory; and motor speed and reaction time. There is limited data on which components of the test batteries are best indicators of early CNS effects. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1584]**PEER REVIEWED**

Evaluation of Cranial Neuropathies: Evaluation of cranial nerve damage, as evidenced by symptoms such as loss of balance, visual function, smell, taste, or sensation on the face, can be accomplished through a physical examination focusing on tests such as: Smell Assessment ... Visual Assessment ... Facial and Trigeminal Nerve Assessment ... Vestibular Assessment ... Hearing Assessment. /Metallic, inorganic and organic mercury/
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1584]**PEER REVIEWED**

Liver Function Tests: Biochemical tests - Enzymes that reflect cholestasis: alkaline phosphatase (AP), 5'-nucleotidase (5'-NT) and leucine aminopeptidase (LAP); Enzymes that detect direct hepatic damage: aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). Clearance tests - indocyanine green, antipyrine test and serum bile acids.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1582]**PEER REVIEWED**

Complete Blood Count: Mercury has been shown to cause hematological changes, which can be assessed by performing a complete blood count.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1580]**PEER REVIEWED**

Respiratory Symptom Questionnaires: Questionnaires have been published by the American Thoracic Society and the British Medical Research Council. These questionnaires have been found to be useful in identification of people with chronic bronchitis, however certain pulmonary function tests such as FEV1 have been found to be better predictors of chronic airflow obstruction.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1583]**PEER REVIEWED**

Chest Radiography: This test is widely used for assessing pulmonary disease. Chest radiographs have been found to be useful for detection of early lung cancer in asymptomatic people, especially for detection of peripheral tumors such as adenocarcinomas. However, even though OSHA mandates this test for exposure to some toxicants such as asbestos, there are conflicting views on its efficacy in detection of pulmonary disease.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1583]**PEER REVIEWED**

Pulmonary Function Tests: The tests that have been found to be practical for population monitoring include: Spirometry and expiratory flow-volume curves; Determination of lung volumes; Diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide; Single-breath nitrogen washout; Inhalation challenge tests; Serial measurements of peak expiratory flow; Exercise testing.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1583]**PEER REVIEWED**

Sputum Cytology: Sputum cytology along with chest radiographs have been the standard procedures for detecting early lung cancer in asymptomatic patients. Sputum cytology has been found to be useful for detection of central tumors, especially squamous carcinomas.
[Ryan, R.P., C.E. Terry (eds.). Toxicology Desk Reference 4th ed. Volumes 1-3. Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C. 1997., p. 1583]**PEER REVIEWED**

Probable Routes of Human Exposure:

ONE OF MAJOR SOURCES OF ... EXPOSURE IS IN CHLOR-ALKALI PLANTS ... /OTHER SOURCES ARE/ MINING & REFINING OF MERCURY ... FROM PROCESSING OF CINNABAR (HGS) ... MFR & USE OF LIQ HG-CONTAINING INSTRUMENTS ... AN OFTEN UNREALIZED SOURCE OF EXPOSURE THROUGH BREAKAGE, SPILLAGE, OR CARELESS HANDLING.
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982., p. 1770]**PEER REVIEWED**

... MOTHERS EXPOSED TO ELEMENTAL MERCURY THROUGH THEIR DENTAL WORK PLACE ... /SHOWED/ SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED MERCURY CONTENT IN THEIR BABIES' PLACENTA & MEMBRANES. ... EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR WOMEN OF CHILDBEARING AGE & LEVELS AT WHICH TOXICITY MIGHT BE EXPECTED /HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED/. FOR FETUS & NEWBORN, THE TOXIC LEVEL IS GIVEN AS 3 UG HG/G.
[Shepard, T.H. Catalog of Teratogenic Agents. 4th ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983., p. 278]**PEER REVIEWED**

INHALATION OF VAPOR BY LABORATORY WORKERS IN CLOSED SPACE LED TO BRONCHIAL IRRITATION /& CHARACTERISTIC MERCURY POISONING SYMPTOMS/ ... CHRONIC MERCURIALISM IN FUR-CUTTING & FELT-HAT INDUSTRIES /IS REPORTED/. ALTHOUGH MERCURIC NITRATE WAS MATERIAL USED TO TREAT FUR FROM WHICH FELT WAS MADE, MERCURY WAS GRADUALLY RELEASED FROM FUR & FELT IN FORM OF METALLIC MERCURY VAPOR. ... THE WORKERS HAD MIXED EXPOSURE TO DUST OF MERCURY CMPD (ESP THE NITRATE) & TO VAPOR OF ELEMENT. ... POISONING WAS SIMILAR TO THAT OBSERVED ... /WITH/ METALLIC MERCURY ONLY.
[Hayes, Wayland J., Jr. Pesticides Studied in Man. Baltimore/London: Williams and Wilkins, 1982., p. 12]**PEER REVIEWED**

NIOSH, IN ITS CRITERIA DOCUMENT ... CONCLUDED THAT THE STD SHOULD BE AT LEAST AS LOW AS 0.05 MG/CU M ... /BECAUSE/ ERETHISM, RATHER THAN TREMOR, MAY BE THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC SYMPTOM OF CHRONIC MERCURIALISM /OCCURRING IN 33% OF WORKERS ABOVE 0.05 MG/CU M & IN 8% OF WORKERS BELOW THIS LEVEL/. ... /STUDIES OF WORKPLACES REVEAL/ THAT MUCH HIGHER EXPOSURES TO MERCURY VAPOR ... /OCCUR WHEN MEASURED/ BY PERSONAL SAMPLING DEVICES (0.016 TO 0.687 MG/CU M). THESE DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN ATTRIBUTABLE TO MERCURY CONTAMINATION OF CLOTHING, WHICH MAY CAUSE SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE AFTER WORK HOURS.
[American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices. 5th ed. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 1986., p. 358]**PEER REVIEWED**

Acute poisoning is major threat in home & on farm, but, because mercury is a cumulative poison, subacute & chronic intoxications are recognized, particularly in industry.
[Gosselin, R.E., R.P. Smith, H.C. Hodge. Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products. 5th ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1984., p. III-262]**PEER REVIEWED**

Prior to 1991, phenylmercuric compounds were used as biocides in 25-30% of interior and exterior latex paint; however, this use of mercury was voluntarily discontinued for interior paint in 1990 and for exterior paint in 1991(1). The use of phenylmercury resulted in the exposure of house painters and residents to mercury vapors in the homes where interior and exterior latex paint was applied(1). Although the use of mercury biocides in latex paint has been discontinued, it is possible that people who use old latex paint in their homes will be exposed to mercury for a considerable time(1). Furthermore, although phenylmercury use in exterior latex paints was discontinued in 1991, paint companies were allowed to continue to produce and sell paint containing phenylmercury until the existing stocks of phenylmercury were exhausted(1).
[(1) ATSDR; Toxicological Profile for Mercury p. 312. Research Triangle Institute 205-93-0606 (1998)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Average Daily Intake:

Assuming an ambient air level of 50 ng/cu m, the average daily intake of metallic mercury vapor would amount to 1 ug/day due to inhalation. ... The average daily intake of those sub-groups of the general population living in specially polluted areas is difficult to estimate with any accuracy. ... Daily intake from occupational exposure is almost impossible to estimate because of the wide variation in exposure conditions in industry.
[WHO; Environ Health Criteria: Mercury p.64 (1976)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Emergency Medical Treatment:

Antidote and Emergency Treatment:

Basic Treatment: Establish a patent airway. Suction if necessary. Watch for signs of respiratory insufficiency and assist ventilations if necessary. Administer oxygen by nonrebreather mask at 10 to 15 L/min. Monitor for pulmonary edema and neat if necessary ... . Monitor for shock and treat if necessary ... . Anticipate seizures and treat if necessary ... . For eye contamination, flush eyes immediately with available water. Irrigate each eye continuously with normal saline during transport ... . Do not use emetics. For ingestion, rinse mouth and administer 5 ml/kg up to 200 ml of water for dilution if the patient can swallow, has a strong gag reflex, and does not drool. Administer activated charcoal ... . /Mercury and related compounds/
[Bronstein, A.C., P.L. Currance; Emergency Care for Hazardous Materials Exposure. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO. Mosby Lifeline. 1994., p. 368-9]**PEER REVIEWED**

Advanced Treatment: Consider orotracheal or nasotracheal intubation for airway control in the patient with severe pulmonary edema or respiratory arrest. Positive pressure ventilation techniques with a bag valve mask device may be beneficial. Monitor cardiac rhythm and treat arrhythmias if necessary ... . Start an IV with D5W Use lactated Ringer's if signs of hypovolemia are present. Watch for signs of fluid overload. Consider drug therapy for pulmonary edema ... . For hypotension with signs of hypovolemia, administer fluid cautiously. Consider vasopressors if hypotensive with a normal fluid volume. Watch for signs of fluid overload ... . Treat seizures with diazepam (Valium) ... . Use proparacaine hydrochloride to assist eye irrigation ... . /Mercury and related compounds/
[Bronstein, A.C., P.L. Currance; Emergency Care for Hazardous Materials Exposure. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO. Mosby Lifeline. 1994., p. 369]**PEER REVIEWED**

Animal Toxicity Studies:

Toxicity Summary:

Evidence for Carcinogenicity:

Non-Human Toxicity Excerpts:

DROPLET OF MERCURY METAL INJECTED INTO ANTERIOR CHAMBER OF RABBIT OR INTO CORNEAL STROMA CAUSES PURULENT REACTION AROUND DROPLET, FORMING ABSCESS IN ADJACENT CORNEA, LEADING ULTIMATELY TO EXPULSION OF FOREIGN MATERIAL. ... MERCURY METAL WAS INJECTED ... INTO VITREOUS HUMOR OF RABBITS, & PURULENT REACTION WITH SHRINKAGE OF VITREOUS, DETACHMENT OF RETINA, & SHRINKAGE & ATROPHY OF EYE WAS OBSERVED. ... /WHILE/ IN CONTACT WITH CONJUNCTIVA, METALLIC MERCURY PRODUCED NO CLINICAL SIGNS OF CONJUNCTIVITIS, HISTOLOGICALLY AN INFLAMMATORY REACTION HAS BEEN DEMONSTRABLE ... EXTERNAL CONTACT WITH MERCURY VAPOR HAS REPEATEDLY BEEN OBSERVED TO INDUCE CHARACTERISTIC DISCOLORATION OF CRYSTALLINE LENS (MERCURIALENTIS).
[Grant, W.M. Toxicology of the Eye. 3rd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1986., p. 587]**PEER REVIEWED**

Threshold of effect opercular rhythm on Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) 10 ug/l/21 days.
[Morgan WSG; J Water Pollut Control Fed 51: 580 (1979) as cited in USEPA; Ambient Water Quality Criteria Doc: Mercury p.62 (1985) EPA 440/5-84-026]**PEER REVIEWED**

The uptake of mercury (Hg) and toxic effect of the metal on some biochemical parameters in the plant Pistia stratiotes were studied. The uptake of Hg by the plants gradually increased with incr in concn of Hg in the culture medium. Max accumulation of Hg was noted within a day. Max removal (approx 90%) of Hg was < 20 ppm Hg. Accumulation of Hg in roots was approx 4 times higher than that in shoots. At 20 ppm, Hg promoted senescence of the plants by decreasing chlorophyll, protein, RNA, dry wt, and the activities of catalase and protease as well as increasing free amino acid content, peroxidase activity, and the ratio of acid to alkaline pyrophosphatase activity over control values. At Hg concn < 20 ppm, these constituents were least affected.
[De AK et al; Water, Air, Soil Pollut 24 (4): 351-60 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Microscopically detectable changes have been seen in the organs of dogs, rabbits, and rats exposed to concn of elemental mercury vapor ranging from about 100 to 30,000 ug/m3 for different periods of time. Severe damage was noted in kidneys and brains at mercury levels in air of about 900 ug/m3 after an exposure period of about 12 wk. After exposure of dogs to 100 ug mercury/m3, for 7 hr/day, 5 days/wk over a period of 83 wk, no microscopically detectable effects were seen, and tests revealed no abnormalities in kidney function.
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 68 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

... Reported the effects of elemental mercury vapor exposure on pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were exposed to elemental mercury vapor at concn of 100, 500, or 1000 ug/m3 during the entire gestational period (chronic exposure) or duing the period of organogenesis (days 10-15, acute exposure). ... Acute exposure to 500 ug/m3 resulted in an incr in the number of resoptions (5/41), and chronic exposure at this concn resulted in two fetuses (out of 84 that were examined) with cranial defects. ... Acute exposure at 1000 ug/m3 resulted in an incr in the rate of resorptions (8/71), and chronic exposure at this dose level produced a decr in maternal and fetal weights ... and an incr in the number of resorptions (7/28).
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 76 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

The toxicity threshold of mercury on the growth of S obliquus is 0.02-0.05 mg/l. The min concn which induces a complete growth inhibition, is in the range of 1-2 mg/l. The length of the lag phase during growth depends on Hg content. Concn of 0.05-1 mg/l Hg caused inhibition of autospore formation and disturbance of the mode of autospore formation and development. Cellular abnormalities including increased cell size and cells with irregular shapes were observed. The degree of abnormalities and duration were directly related to Hg concn. There were no visible changes of morphol at 2 mg/l but a gradual depigmentation of the chloroplast was noted. Hg at 0.01-1 mg/l caused decreases in the photosynthetic activity to approx 20-80% of control values within 24 hr. At the end of expts (48 hr) photosynthesis was almost restored when treated with < 1 mg/l Hg. Thus, the growth inhibition is due to an inhibition of photosynthesis and autospore formation.
[Han H; Huanjing Kexue Xuebao 4 (2): 157-64 (1984)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Ecotoxicity Values:

LC50 Catfish 0.35 mg/l/96 hr. /Conditions of bioassay not specified/
[Spehar RL et al; J Water Pollution Control Federation 53 (6): 1028-1076 (1981) as cited in Environment Canada; Tech Info for Problem Spills: Mercury (Draft) p.35 (1982)]**PEER REVIEWED**

LC50 Modiolus carvalhoi (mollusk) 0.5 ppm/48 hr; 0.19 ppm/96 hr /Conditions of bioassay not specified/
[Ekanth AE, Menon NR; Fish Technol 20 (2): 84-9 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**

LC50 Rana hexadactyla (tadpoles) 0.051 ppm/96 hr /Conditions of bioassay not specified/
[Khangurot BS et al; Acta Hydrochim Hydrobiol 13 (2): 259-63 (1985)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics:

Metabolism/Metabolites:

... ONE OF THE ... PATHWAYS, IF NOT THE ONLY PATHWAY, BY WHICH ELEMENTAL MERCURY (HG(0+)) IS ABSORBED ... /& CONVERTED IN VIVO/ IS BY ITS OXIDATION /IN ERYTHROCYTES/ TO HG(2+). ... STUDIES WITH ACATALASEMIC RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCS) /SHOW/ THAT CATALASE-HYDROGEN PEROXIDE SYSTEM PLAYS A DETERMINANT ROLE IN MERCURY UPTAKE THROUGH THIS CATALYTIC OXIDATION SYSTEM; HUMAN ACATALASEMIC RBCS HAD ONLY 1/100 TO 6/100 THE UPTAKE OF MERCURY VAPOR FOUND IN NORMAL RBCS WITH HYDROGEN PEROXIDE.
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982., p. 1784]**PEER REVIEWED**

The oxidation of metallic mercury vapor to divalent ionic mercury ... takes place very soon after absorption, but some elemental mercury remains dissolved in the blood long enough (a few min) for it to be carried to the blood-brain barrier and the placenta ... Recent in vitro studies on the oxidation of mercury by the blood ... indicate that because of the short transit time from the lung to the brain almost all the mercury vapor (97%) arrives at the brain unoxidized. Its lipid solubility and high diffusibility allow rapid transit across these barriers. Oxidation of the mercury vapor in brain and fetal tissues converts it to the ionic form, which is much less likely to cross the blood-brain and placental barriers.
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 52 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Absorption, Distribution & Excretion:

Several studies have correlated the number of dental amalgam fillings or amalgam surfaces with the mercury content in brain and kidney tissue from human autopsy. Subjects with no dental amalgam had a mean mercury level of 6.7 ng/g (2.4-12.2) in the occipital cortex; whereas, subjects with amalgams had a mean level of 12.3 ng/g (4.8-28.7) ... Amalgam-free subjects had a mean mercury level in kidneys of 49 ng/g (21-105), whereas subjects with amalgam fillings had a corresponding level of 433 ng/g (48-810). /Mercury alloy/
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 38 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Biological Half-Life:

The biological half-life of mercury in fish is approx 2 to 3 yr.
[USEPA; Ambient Water Quality Criteria Doc: Mercury p.10 (1984) EPA 440/5-84-026]**PEER REVIEWED**

The whole body half-time of mercury in man is approximately 50 to 70 days. A rapid component in blood has a half-time of about three days, and a slower component has a half-time of about 30 days. A rapid component in the brain has a half-time of about 21 days. There is evidence of a much slower component in brain with a half-time on the order of several years.
[USEPA; Mercury Health Effects Update p.2-4 (1984) EPA 600/8-84-019F]**PEER REVIEWED**

For pike, mercury (Hg) concn in muscle after 70-90 days were 1000-1500 times that in water. ... The half-life for elimination of Hg from contaminated pike placed in clean water was 65-70 days.
[Nat'l Research Council Canada; Effects of Mercury in the Canadian Environment p.89 (1979) NRCC No. 16739]**PEER REVIEWED**

Mechanism of Action:

UPTAKE OF MERCURY BY BRAIN AFTER IV INJECTION OF ELEMENTAL MERCURY WAS INVESTIGATED IN RAT, AFTER DEPLETION OF GLUTATHIONE OR INHIBITION OF GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE IN BRAIN TISSUE. WHEN GLUTATHIONE IN BRAIN WAS DEPLETED 76% BY INTRAVENTRICULAR INJECTION OF DIETHYLMALEATE, A 13% INCR IN MERCURY UPTAKE WAS OBSERVED. AFTER INTRAVENTRICULAR INJECTION OF IODOACETATE, ACTIVITY OF GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE IN BRAIN WAS INHIBITED 19% & CONTENT OF REDUCED GLUTATHIONE WAS DECR 20%. IN THESE ANIMALS MERCURY UPTAKE BY BRAIN INCR 66% RELATIVE TO CONTROLS.
[EIDE I, SYVERSEN TL; TOXICOL LETT 17 (3-4): 209 (1983)]**PEER REVIEWED**

The neurotoxic effect seen after exposure to metallic mercury vapor is attributable to the divalent mercury ion formed through oxidation in the brain tissue. Interference with enzyme function by binding to sulfhydryl groups is one possible mechanism ... Transport through the cell membrane via the formation of carrier complexes /sodium and calcium channels/ would also be a possibility, although this has not been demonstrated.
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 80 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Interactions:

IT HAS BEEN FOUND ... THAT ETHANOL DEPRESSES CONVERSION OF INHALED ELEMENTAL MERCURY INTO IONIC FORM IN BLOOD. IN ADDN, ETHANOL ENHANCES PULMONARY EXHALATION OF ABSORBED MERCURY, WITH RESULTANT EFFECT OF SUPPRESSING LUNG RETENTION OF MERCURY TOGETHER WITH LOWERING BLOOD MERCURY CONTENT.
[Clayton, G. D. and F. E. Clayton (eds.). Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology: Volume 2A, 2B, 2C: Toxicology. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley Sons, 1981-1982., p. 1784]**PEER REVIEWED**

... Concn of NTA in surface waters had no interaction with barium, antimony, molybdenum, strontium, chromium, silver, tin, iron, lead, cadmium, copper, and mercury ... and not enough with nickel, zinc, manganese, cobalt, magnesium, and calcium ... to be of environmental concern.
[Nat'l Research Council Canada; NTA (Nitrilotriacetic Acid)-An Ecological Appraisal p.20 (1976) NRCC No. 15023]**PEER REVIEWED**

The oxidation of elemental mercury vapor in the body ... can be reduced considerably (to about 50% of normal values) by moderate amt of alcohol. In an in vivo study, the uptake of labelled mercury into human red cells was reduced by a factor of ten by ethanol, while there was an incr in liver mercury concn ... .
[WHO; Environmental Health Criteria 118: Inorganic Mercury p. 52 (1991)]**PEER REVIEWED**

Pharmacology:

Therapeutic Uses:

MEDICATION (VET): Has been used as a laxative. /Former use/ Cathartic
[The Merck Index. 10th ed. Rahway, New Jersey: Merck Co., Inc., 1983., p. 843]**PEER REVIEWED**

Antimicrobial agent /Former use/
[Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed., Volumes 1-26. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1978-1984., p. 13(81) 235]**PEER REVIEWED**